Journals > Journal: School Readiness: Closing Racial and Ethnic Gaps > Article: Neuroscience Perspectives on Disparities in School Readiness and Cognitive Achievement
Journal Issue: School Readiness: Closing Racial and Ethnic Gaps Volume 15 Number 1 Spring 2005
Kimberly G. Noble Nim Tottenham B.J. Casey
Endnotes
1. Martha J. Farah and Kimberly G. Noble, “Socioeconomic Influences on Brain Development: A Preliminary Study,” in Developing Individuality in the Human Brain: A Tribute to Michael Posner, edited by E. Awh, U. Mayr, and S. Keele (Washington: American Psychological Association, forthcoming).
2. B. J. Casey, Jay N. Giedd, and Kathleen M. Thomas, “Structural and Functional Brain Development and Its Relation to Cognitive Development,” Biological Psychiatry 54, nos. 1–3 (2000).
3. B. J. Casey and others, “A Developmental fMRI Study of Prefrontal Activation during Performance of a Go–No-Go Task,” Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 9 (1997).
4. Kenneth K. Kwong and others, “Dynamic Magnetic Resonance Imaging of Human Brain Activity during Primary Sensory Stimulation,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA 89 (1992); Seji Ogawa and others, “Intrinsic Signal Changes Accompanying Sensory Stimulation: Functional Brain Mapping with Magnetic Resonance Imaging,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA 89, no. 13 (1992).
5. Silvia A. Bunge and others, “Prefrontal Regions Involved in Keeping Information in and out of Mind,” Brain 124, no. 10 (2001); B. J. Casey and others, “Activation of Prefrontal Cortex in Children during a Non-Spatial Working Memory Task with Functional MRI,” Neuroimage 2 (1995); B. J. Casey, Nim Tottenham, and John Fossella, “Clinical, Imaging, Lesion and Genetic Approaches toward a Model of Cognitive Control,” Developmental Psychobiology 40 (2002); B. J. Casey and others, “A Developmental Functional MRI Study of Prefrontal Activation during Performance of a Go–No-Go Task,” Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 9 (1997); Sarah Durston and others, “The Effect of Preceding Context on Inhibition: An Event-Related fMRI Study,” Neuroimage 16, no. 2 (2002); Torkel Klingberg, Hans Forssberg, and Helena Westerberg, “Increased Brain Activity in Frontal and Parietal Cortex Underlies the Development of Visuospatial Working Memory Capacity during Childhood,” Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 14, no. 1 (2002); Beatriz Luna and others, “Maturation of Widely Distributed Brain Function Subserves Cognitive Development,” Neuroimage 13, no. 5 (2001); Kathleen M. Thomas and others, “A Developmental Functional MRI Study of Spatial Working Memory,” Neuroimage 10 (1999).
6. Durston and others, “The Effect of Preceding Context on Inhibition”; Casey and others, “A Developmental fMRI Study of Prefrontal Activation during Performance of a Go–No-Go Task” (see note 5).
7. Susan E. Gathercole, “The Development of Memory,” Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 39, no. 1 (1998).
8. Charles A. Nelson and Sara J. Webb, “A Cognitive Neuroscience Perspective on Early Memory Development,” in The Cognitive Neuroscience of Development, edited by Michelle de Haan and Mark H. Johnson (New York: Psychology Press, 2003).
9. Larry R. Squire, Frank Haist, and Arthur P. Shimamura, “The Neurology of Memory: Quantitative Assessment of Retrograde Amnesia in Two Groups of Amnesiac Patients,” Journal of Neuroscience 9 (1989).
10. Jay N. Giedd and others, “Brain Development during Childhood and Adolescence: A Longitudinal MRI Study,” Nature Neuroscience 2, no. 10 (1999); Hidetsuna Utsunomiya and others, “Development of the Temporal Lobe in Infants and Children: Analysis by MR-Based Volumetry,” American Journal of Neuroradiology 20, no. 4 (1999).
11. Gathercole, “The Development of Memory” (see note 7).
12. Casey, Tottenham, and Fossella, “Clinical, Imaging, Lesion and Genetic Approaches toward a Model of Cognitive Control” (see note 5).
13. Marilyn J. Adams, Learning to Read: Thinking and Learning about Print (MIT Press, 1990); Lynette Bradley and Peter E. Bryant, “Categorizing Sounds and Learning to Read—a Causal Connection,” Nature 301 (1983); Richard K. Wagner and Joseph K. Torgesen, “The Nature of Phonological Processing and Its Causal Role in the Acquisition of Reading Skills,” Psychological Bulletin 101 (1987).
14. Wagner and Torgesen, “The Nature of Phonological Processing” (see note 13); G. Wayne MacDonald and Anne Cornwall, “The Relationship between Phonological Awareness and Reading and Spelling Achievement Eleven Years Later,” Journal of Learning Disabilities 28, no. 8 (1995).
15. Bruce M. McCandliss and Kimberly G. Noble, “The Development of Reading Impairment: A Cognitive Neuroscience Model,” Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities Research Reviews 9 (2003).
16. Barry Horwitz, Judith M. Rumsey, and Brian C. Donohue, “Functional Connectivity of the Angular Gyrus in Normal Reading and Dyslexia,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA 95 (1998); Cathy J. Price and others, “Segregating Semantic from Phonological Processes during Reading,” Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 9, no. 6 (1997); Kenneth Pugh and others, “Cerebral Organization of Component Processes in Reading,” Brain 119 (1996); Bennett A. Shaywitz and others, “Disruption of Posterior Brain Systems for Reading in Children with Developmental Dyslexia,” Biological Psychiatry 52 (2002); Panagiotis G. Simos and others, “Dyslexia-Specific Brain Activation Profile Becomes Normal Following Successful Remedial Training,” Neurology 58 (2002); Elise Temple and others, “Disrupted Neural Responses to Phonological and Orthographic Processing in Dyslexic Children: An fMRI Study,” NeuroReport 12, no. 2 (2001).
17. Giedd and others, “Brain Development during Childhood and Adolescence” (see note 10); Elizabeth B. Sowell and others, “Mapping Sulcal Pattern Assymetry and Local Cortical Surface Gray Matter Distribution in vivo: Maturation in Perisylvian Cortices,” Cerebral Cortex 12 (2002); Tomas Paus and others, “Structural Maturation of Neural Pathways in Children and Adolescents: In Vivo Study,” Science 283 (1999).
18. Bradley L. Schlaggar and others, “Functional Neuroanatomical Differences between Adults and School-Age Children in the Processing of Single Words,” Science 296 (2002); Shaywitz and others, “Disruption of Posterior Brain Systems for Reading in Children with Developmental Dyslexia” (see note 16).
19. McCandliss and Noble, “The Development of Reading Impairment: A Cognitive Neuroscience Model” (see note 15).
20. Enrico Mezzacappa, “Alerting, Orienting, and Executive Attention: Developmental Properties and Socio- Demographic Correlates in an Epidemiological Sample of Young, Urban Children,” Child Development (forthcoming).
21. U.S. Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract of the United States (2000).
22. See also Theresa Hawley and Elizabeth R. Disney, “Crack's Children: The Consequences of Maternal Cocaine Abuse,” Social Policy Report 6 (1992); Nancy K. Klein, Maureen Hack, and Naomi Breslau, “Children Who Were Very Low Birthweight: Development and Academic Achievement at Nine Years of Age,” Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics 10 (1989); Herbert L. Needleman and others, “The Long Term Effects of Low Doses of Lead in Childhood: An Eleven-Year Followup Report,” New England Journal of Medicine 322 (1990); Robert H. Bradley and others, “The Home Environments of Children in the United States, Part I: Variations by Age, Ethnicity and Poverty Status,” Child Development 72, no. 6 (2001); Jeanne Brooks-Gunn, Pamela K. Klebanov, and Greg .J. Duncan, “Ethnic Differences in Children's Intelligence Test Scores: Role of Economic Deprivation, Home Environment, and Maternal Characteristics,” Child Development 67 (1996); Vonnie C. McCloyd, “The Impact of Economic Hardship on Black Families and Children: Psychological Distress, Parenting, and Socioemotional Development,” Child Development 61 (1990); W. Steven Barnett, “Long-Term Cognitive and Academic Effects of Early Childhood Education on Children in Poverty,” Preventive Medicine 27 (1998).
23. Margaret E. Ensminger and Kate E. Fothergill, “A Decade of Measuring SES: What It Tells Us and Where to Go from Here,” in Socioeconomic Status, Parenting and Child Development, edited by Marc H. Bornstein and Robert H. Bradley (Mahwah, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2003). Fong-ruey Liaw and Jeanne Brooks-Gunn, “Cumulative Familial Risks and Low-Birthweight Children's Cognitive and Behavioral Development,” Journal of Clinical Child Psychology 23, no. 4 (1994); Judith Smith, Jeanne Brooks-Gunn, and Pamela K. Klebanov, “Consequences of Living in Poverty for Young Children's Cognitive and Verbal Ability and Early School Achievement,” in Consequences of Growing up Poor, edited by Greg Duncan and Jeanne Brooks-Gunn (New York: Russell Sage, 1997); Jeanne Brooks-Gunn, Guang Guo, and Frank Furstenberg, “Who Drops out of and Who Continues beyond High School?” Journal of Research on Adolescence 3 (1993); Nazli Baydar, Jeanne Brooks-Gunn, and Frank Furstenberg, “Early Warning Signs of Functional Illiteracy: Predictors in Childhood and Adolescence,” Child Development 64 (1993).
24. Allen W. Gottfried and others, “Socioeconomic Status in Children's Development and Family Environment: Infancy through Adolescence,” in Socioeconomic Status, Parenting and Child Development, edited by Marc H. Bornstein and Robert H. Bradley (Mahwah, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2003).
25. Leon Feinstein, “Inequality in the Early Cognitive Development of British Children in the 1970 Cohort,” Economica 70 (2003).
26. Kimberly G. Noble, M. Frank Norman, and Martha J. Farah, “Neurocognitive Correlates of Socioeconomic Status in Kindergarten Children,” Developmental Science (forthcoming).
27. Kimberly G. Noble, Martha J. Farah, and Bruce M. McCandliss, “Normal Neurocognitive Development: Influence of Socioeconomic Status,” paper presented to the Cognitive Neuroscience Society, San Francisco, 2004.
28. Karl R. White, “The Relation between Socio-Economic Status and Academic Achievement,” Psychological Bulletin 91 (1982).
29. Steven A. Hecht and others, “Explaining Social Class Differences in Growth of Reading Skills from Beginning Kindergarten through Fourth Grade: The Role of Phonological Awareness, Rate of Access, and Print Knowledge,” Reading and Writing 12, nos. 1–2 (2000).
30. See note 13.
31. Judith A. Bowey, “Socioeconomic Status Differences in Preschool Phonological Sensitivity and First-Grade Reading Achievement,” Journal of Educational Psychology 87, no. 3 (1995); Hecht and others, “Explaining Social Class Differences in Growth of Reading Skills from Beginning Kindergarten through Fourth Grade” (see note 29); Ita S. Raz and Peter Bryant, “Social Background, Phonological Awareness and Children's Reading,” British Journal of Developmental Psychology 8, no. 3 (1990).
32. Kimberly Noble, Martha J. Farah, and Bruce M. McCandliss, “The Effects of Socioeconomic Status and Phonological Awareness on Reading Development,” paper presented to the Society for the Scientific Study of Reading, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2004.
33. William T. Greenough, James E. Black , and Christopher S. Wallace, “Experience and Brain Development,” Child Development 58, no. 3 (1987); Sonia J. Lupien and others, “Child's Stress Hormone Levels Correlate with Mother's Socioeconomic Status and Depressive State,” Biological Psychiatry 48 (2000); Bruce S. McEwen, “From Molecules to Mind: Stress, Individual Differences, and the Social Environment,” Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 935 (2001); Mark R. Rosenzweig and Edward L. Bennett, “Psychobiology of Plasticity: Effects of Training and Experience on Brain and Behavior,” Behavioral Brain Research 78 (1996).
34. Rosenzweig and Bennett, “Psychobiology of Plasticity” (see note 33).
35. The association between stress and low SES is noted by Brooks-Gunn, Klebanov, and Duncan, “Ethnic Differences in Children's Intelligence Test Scores” (see note 22). The effects of emotional support in the home are documented by Sanders Korenman, Jane E. Miller, and John E. Sjaastad, “Long-Term Poverty and Child Development in the United States: Results from the NLSY,” Children and Youth Services Review 17 (1995).
36. Mary Carlson and Felton Earls, “Psychological and Neuroendocrinological Sequelae of Early Social Deprivation in Institutionalized Children in Romaina,” Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 807 (1997); Megan R. Gunnar, “Early Adversity and the Development of Stress Reactivity and Regulation,” in The Minnesota Symposia on Child Psychology, vol. 31: The Effects of Early Adversity on Neurobehavioral Development, edited by C. A. Nelson (Mahwah, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum and Associates, 2000); Michael D. De Bellis and others, “Developmental Traumatology, Part I: Biological Stress Systems,” Biological Psychiatry 45 (1999).
37. Elizabeth Gould and others, “Neurogenesis in the Dentate Gyrus of the Adult Tree Shrew Is Regulated by Psychosocial Stress and Nmda Receptor Activation,” Journal of Neuroscience 17 (1997); Elizabeth Gould and others, “Proliferation of Granule Cell Precursors in the Dentate Gyrus of Adult Monkeys Is Diminished by Stress,” Brain Research: Developmental Brain Research 103 (1998); Patima Tanapat, Lisa A. Galea, and Elizabeth Gould, “Stress Inhibits the Proliferation of Granule Cell Precursors in the Developing Dentate Gyrus,” Journal of Developmental Neuroscience 16 (1998).
38. J. Douglas Bremner and others, “MRI-Based Measurement of Hippocampal Volume in Patients with Combat- Related Posttraumatic Stress Disorder,” American Journal of Psychiatry 152, no. 7 (1995); J. Douglas Bremner and others, “Hippocampal Volume Reduction in Major Depression,” American Journal of Psychiatry 157, no. 1 (2000); Yvette I. Sheline and others, “Hippocampal Atrophy in Recurrent Major Depression,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 93 (1996); David C. Steffens and others, “Hippocampal Volume in Geriatric Depression,” Biological Psychiatry 43 (2000).
39. The role of the hippocampus in learning and memory is discussed by Squire, Haist, and Shimamura, “The Neurology of Memory” (see note 9). On the effects of prolonged exposure to stress hormones, see Robert M. Sapolsky, Stress, the Aging Brain, and the Mechanisms of Neuron Death (MIT Press, 1992).
40. Martha Augoustinos, “Developmental Effects of Child Abuse: A Number of Recent Findings,” Child Abuse and Neglect 11 (1987); Normand J. Carrey and others, “Physiological and Cognitive Correlates of Child Abuse,” Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 34 (1995); John Money, Charles Annecillo, and John F. Kelly, “Abuse-Dwarfism Syndrome: After Rescue, Statural and Intellectual Catchup Growth Correlate,” Journal of Clinical Child Psychology 12, nos. 279–83 (1983); Cynthia Perez and Cathy S. Widom, “Childhood Victimization and Longterm Intellectual and Academic Outcomes,” Child Abuse and Neglect 18 (1994); Robert Pianta, Byron Egeland, and Martha F. Erickson, “Results of the Mother-Child Interaction Research Project,” in Child Maltreatment: Theory and Research on the Causes and Consequences of Child Abuse and Neglect, edited by Dante Cicchetti and Vicki Carlson (Cambridge University Press, 1989); Penelope K. Trickett, Catherine A. McBride-Chang, and Frank W. Putnam, “The Classroom Performance and Behavior of Sexually Abused Girls,” Developmental Psychopathology 6 (1994).
41. Sue R. Beers and Michael D. De Bellis, “Neuropsychological Function in Children with Maltreatment- Related Posttraumatic Stress Disorder,” American Journal of Psychiatry 159 (2002); Ali R. Moradi and others, “Everyday Memory Deficits in Children and Adolescents with PTSD: Performance on the Rivermead Behavioral Memory Test,” Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 40 (1999).
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44. Durston and others, “The Effect of Preceding Context on Inhibition” (see note 5).
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46. Casey, Tottenham, and Fossella, “Clinical, Imaging, Lesion and Genetic Approaches toward a Model of Cognitive Control” (see note 5).
47. Lupien and others, “Child's Stress Hormone Levels Correlate with Mother's Socioeconomic Status and Depressive State” (see note 33).
48. Daphne Bavelier and Helen J. Neville, “Cross-Modal Plasticity: Where and How?” Nature Reviews Neuroscience 3 (2002).
49. Karestan C. Koenen and others, “Domestic Violence Is Associated with Environmental Suppression of IQ in Young Children,” Development and Psychopathology 15 (2003).
50. Julia Kim-Cohen and others, “Genetic and Environmental Processes in Young Children's Resilience and Vulnerability to Socioeconomic Deprivation,” Child Development 75, no. 3 (2004).
51. Christiane Capron and Michel Duyme, “Assessment of Effects of Socio-Economic Status on IQ in a Full Cross-Fostering Study,” Nature 340, no. 6234 (1990).
52. Michael J. Meaney, “Maternal Care, Gene Expression, and the Transmission of Individual Differences in Stress Reactivity across Generations,” Annual Review of Neuroscience 24 (2001); Stephen J. Suomi, “Gene- Environment Interactions and the Neurobiology of Social Conflict,” Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1008 (2003).
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54. Rosenzweig and Bennett, “Psychobiology of Plasticity” (see note 33).
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56. M. Rosario Rueda and others, “Training of Attention in 4 Year Old Children,” paper presented to the Cognitive Neuroscience Society, San Francisco, 2004.
57. John C. Buckner, E. Mezzacappa, and W. R. Beardslee, “Characteristics of Resilient Youths Living in Poverty: The Role of Self-Regulatory Processes,” Development and Psychopathology 15, no. 1 (2003).
58. Bruce M. McCandliss and Michael Wolmetz, “Developmental Psychobiology of Reading Disability,” Biological Psychiatry (forthcoming).
59. Barbara R. Foorman and others, “How Letter-Sound Instruction Mediates Progress in First-Grade Reading and Spelling,” Journal of Educational Psychology 83, no. 4 (1991); Joseph K. Torgesen and others, “Intensive Remedial Instruction for Children with Severe Reading Disabilities: Immediate and Long-Term Outcomes from Two Instructional Approaches,” Journal of Learning Disabilities 34 (2001); Frank R. Vellutino and others, “Cognitive Profiles of Difficult-to-Remediate and Readily Remediated Poor Readers: Early Intervention as a Vehicle for Distinguishing between Cognitive and Experiential Deficits as Basic Causes of a Specific Reading Disability,” Journal of Educational Psychology 88, nos. 601–38 (1996).
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